Log Schemata

Definitions:     IF.1.1. Model of Human Motivations by Freud - Definitions:      Id,  Ego,  Subjectivity of Ego,    Primary Process,  Secondary Process. Relation of Id and Ego with Economics:         IF.1.2. Relation of Id and Ego with Economics. Questions:      Q5 on IF.1.1. to IF.1.2. Variations in Economic Conditions and Ego.      Q6 on IF.1.1. and IF.1.2: Irrationality and Security in Lab.

Basic Concepts:  Logic:  M1.1. Logic. Argument:  M.1.2. Argument. Nature of the Truth:  M.1.3. Truth. Meaning of Logical Derivation:  M.1.4: Derivation. Two Requisites of Valid Arguments:  M.1.5. The Requirements of an Argument: Eight Protocols of Reasoning:  M.1.6. Protocols of Correct Reasoning: Meaning of Fallacy, and Common Fallacies:  M.1.7. Fallacy:

Based on Writings of Robbins:  Concept of an Economic Statistics The Non-Uniform Distribution of Everything The Relative Time Series Fundamental Asymmetry of Time Series

Based on Writings of Robbins:  The Universality of Relativity   The Non-Uniform Distribution of Everything Economically Meaningful as Relations Based on Variations         Concept of an  Economic Good Fallacy of Misplaced Concreteness 

Based on Writings of Robbins:      The Rationality:        The Functions of an Economist in a Society. Diagram:        V5 on 1.6.1: Concept Map of Rationality and its Function in Society (Robbins)

Based on Writings of Robbins: Deductive Logic: The Primacy of Deductive Logic: In 1.4.1. Economics as the Logic of Choice: In 1.5.4. The Limitations of Economic Laws: In 1.5.5. Inductive Logic: Role of Empirical Methods: In 1.5.1. (Operationalization, Measurement, Logical Gap, Logical Contradiction.)          Limitations of Observational Studies for Derivation of Laws: In 1.4.4.                 Two Problems of Empirics: In 1.5.2

Definitions, and Details by Robbins:  The Nature of Laws of Economics The Inevitability of Laws of Economics The Limitations of Observational Studies for Derivation of Laws The Role of Economic Laws Given the Problems of Empirics The Usefulness of Economic Laws Economics as the Logic of Choice The Limitations of Economic Laws

Definition(s):  By Robbins:  1.2.1. The Focus of an Economist. Diagram:  Scope:  V2 on 1.2.1. Concept Map of The Scope of Economics (Robbins) Additional Information:       In Relation With Other Sciences ( By Robbins):  1.2.2. Relation of Economics to Other Sciences.      ( Ethics,  Psychology,  Aesthetics,  History,  Technology,  Meta-Physics.)     Contra  Non-Economics (By Robbins):  1.2.3. Non-Economics. Narrations:  YouTube:  What is the rivet of an Economist? On what do we fix our attention steadily as central objective?

  Definition(s):  By Robbins:  In 1.1.1. Properties:  Substitutable:  In 1.1.1. Scarce:  In 1.1.1. Multiplicity of:  II in 1.8.4.          Contradictions: In 1.6.2.   Questions:  Q1 on D5 of 1.1.1:  What is an Aspect of Behaviour?

Definition(s):  By Robbins: In 1.1.1. Properties:  Substitutable:  In 1.1.1. Scarce:  In 1.1.1. Multiplicity of: II in 1.8.4. Questions:  Q1 on D5 of 1.1.1: What is a Substitute?

Based on Writings of Robbins:  The Primacy of Time The Primacy of Action  The Primacy of Multiplicity (of Means and Ends) The Primacy of Non-Money The Primacy of Deductive Logic          The Universality of Contradictory Ends  The Universality of Relativity (Or Relation of Means and Ends) The Universality of Non-Uniform Distributions   The Universality of Asymmetric Relations Among Prices  Based on Writings of Menger:           The Primacy of Time            The Primacy of Uncertainty            The Primacy of One-To-Many Relations            The Primacy of Absence of Inherent Anything -  To be Added later, includes absence of inherent nature, usefulness, order, and value of anything. All is depends on the relativity of means and ends. See above.  The Universality of Relativity.

Definition(s):  By Robbins: 1.1.1. The Definition of Economics (and of Components of this Definition) By Robbins (Extended):  1.2.4. Definition of Economics (Extended Version) By Jevons: 2.1.1. (Later) Diagrams:  V1 on 1.1.1: The Concept Map of Economics (Robbins) V2 on 1.2.1: The Concept Map of The Scope of Economics (Robbins) Questions:          Q1 on D5 of 1.1.1:  What is a Substitute? Q2 on D2 of 1.1.1: What is an Aspect of Behaviour?           Q3 on 1.2.4: What are the Implications of the "Psychological Conflict"? Q4 on 1.2.1. to 1.2.4:  What is Economics in A Broader Project of Social Science? Narrations:        YouTube: What is Economics?       YouTube:  Since substitution also implies postponing, what implications it has for Economic analysis?       YouTube:  In a world governed by pragmatism, what significance is of actions in Economics?      YouTube:  Why means and ends are never singular, and are always multiple?     YouTube:  In a world governed by p

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Question - 1.1: Shall we expect that the irrationality of preferences becomes visible in an Economic scenario where conditions of means and ends ensure that threats to self preservation are lowered to a large degree?  Question - 1.2: If so, how can we observe it in an experimental setting in a lab? Brief Explanation:  Since Id is impervious to experience, and Ego is self preservation, it is logical that under conditions where threat to the self preservation are very low, some glimpse of the irrationality of preferences would be visible. If the environment grants security to self, and credibly promises to preserve each self which is part of it, the need of security would be gratified. And we know from experience when one need is gratified, the preference associated with it dulls in favour of another preference serving another psychological tension, or physiological need etc.  (Incomplete - To Be Updated Soon)

Question - 1: How the variations in Economic conditions of the child from pre-birth until age of consent strengthens his or her Ego?  Question - 1.1: Is it that scarcity of the available alternatives to gratify ends strengthen, or weaken the Ego? Brief Explanation:  Since Ego is nourished by the experiences, and Economics is the study of human behaviour under conditions of scarcity of substitutable means given multiple ends, we should expect that the variance in scarcity of alternatives for gratifying the ends of growing children who more or less share the same ends would play a role in relative developments of their Egos.

For purpose of Economics we may perform the following deductions on IF.1.1, which are implications of Freud for Economists:  (I stands for Implications.) D.1. Since Ego's main function is the self preservation, we may simplify it as: Ego is the Preference for Self Preservation. D.2. Since Id is the cauldron of seething desires, we may simplify as: Id is the source of all preferences, or it governs them. D.3. Since Ego is nourished by experiences, we may simplify it as: Ego is subject to the information set an individual has. D.4. Since Secondary Process is problem solving, logical process at service of Id, we may simplify it as: Secondary process is Rational (or implies the Rationality) as in using all available information for the best outcomes. Implications of D1 to D4.  I.1. Since Ego initiates the Secondary process, from D.1. and D.4. it follows that Preference for Self Preservation initiates Rationality. I.2. Since Ego is subject to the derives of its first master Id, it follo

For Freud, the fundamental constructs of Human Personality, are as follows:   D.1. Id: From German Das Es, The It, pre-existing at the time of birth, a cauldron of seething excitations, the Id transforms our physiological needs into psychological tensions, or derives, aims at gaining pleasure by derive reduction, and remains indifferent and precedent to all morality and rationality, reality and self preservation, and thereby initiates the Primary Process of mind. D.2. Primary Process:  The natural process of mind pre-existing all rationality, and morality where opposites and conflicting views co-exist, and all related concepts are condensed into single entity. Everything here is indifferent to time, and impervious to experiences. D. 3. Ego: From German Das Ich, The I, born out of the Id at around age of 06 months, is consequence of and is nourished by our experiences of things in our environment which are of a service, or a disservice to the demands of the Id, and is in essence our pre

D1. Fairness: Equal distribution of the opportunities is the point of reference for judgement of fair versus unfair inequality. D.2. Equality of Opportunity - Substantial:  Equality of opportunity requires that all individuals have the same chances to obtain valuable outcomes. D. 3 .  Equality of Opportunity - Formal:  Non-discrimination, prescribing that all individuals should be treated equally. D.4. Circumstances: That which is out of control of an individual's effort.  D.5. Effort: That for which individual is held responsible i.e. which is within the reach or control of an individual.  D.6. Compensation Principal: To compensate individuals for the unfair disadvantage due to their circumstances.  D.7. Reward Principal: To reward individuals for the fair advantage due to their effort.  E.1. Two scenarios are now as follows:  I. For each Effort level, there can be many individuals each facing a different Circumstance.  II. For each Circumstance, there can be many individuals ea

D.1. Fallacy:  A fallacy is an argument which violates, often deceptively, the protocols of an argument as listed in M.1.6. Remarks: These are examples of informal taken from Copi, and Cohen Introduction to logic.  I have pointed out fallacies only and provided examples. However, you may want to observe how these relate the eight protocols in M.1.6, if it is an exercise in logic which interests you more. Few additional discussions and exercises are also added as well. D.2.1. Argument from Ignorance Example:   Galileo, during his famous trail, claimed that he has seen mountains and valleys on the moon of earth. Since the theory, held by the then church, suggested that there are no mountains or valleys on moon, and that the moon is perfectly spherical, Galileo was criticized. His opponents said: Although there appears to be irregularities, these are, in fact, filled by invisible crystalline substance and that the moon is a perfect sphere. Now Galileo cunningly replied that: There are als

Based on the M.1.1 to M.1.5, the Protocols of Correct Reasoning can be stated as: (P stands for Protocol)  P.1. An argument must have at least one proposition. E.1. This is true because of definition of an argument. Without propositions, we cannot infer any truth. A proposition is simply a statement which can be true or false. The simplest proposition can be: Mr. A is telling the truth. And complex can be: Height of Ms. X is between the averages of normally distributed groups of university males and female students. P.2. All the implications must be found: E.2. Because of D.2 in M.1.5, it is necessary that we discover all the implications of each term in an argument (by term, I mean concepts, relations, quantities, predicates, subject, etc etc). For if we ignore some implications, it is possible that they may contradict the conclusion thus reached in ignorance. If conclusion thus reached in ignorance contradicts some of the implications of the given set of initial propositions, we hav

Based on M1.1 to M1.4, an argument must observe:  D.1. Exclusivity of the Truth: The truth of anything only establishes the truth of components of its definition, or of its assumed consequents - truth remains exclusively for itself. D.2. Conclusivity of the Results: An argument must yield a non-absurd conclusion instead of absurdities, or suggestive truths - the result of an argument is clearly decisive.

D.1. Derivation:  It is only that we deduct additional concepts to see more explicitly the relation of our interest.  E.1. For instance, if X > Y, Z < A, and Y = A + 1, and if we are interested in truth of X < Z, we may infer that X > Y > A > Z and therefore it is false that X < Z since we deduce that X > Z. (From The concept of truth (M.1.2) implies the meaning of being logically derived from the given set of propositions) E.2.1. Briefly speaking, the following is a guiding principal:  An antecedent implies a consequent, and absence of consequences implies absence of antecedents.  The relation between these two - antecedent and consequent - is always taken for granted during analysis to avoid an infinite regress into 'because of __ because of  __ ......'. E.2.2. Moreover, all components of a definition of a concept can be treated as consequent of the concept defined. Hence, if a concept is considered to be true, all its components are also true. The ass

D.1. Truth:  The truth of a proposition belongs only to itself, and itself alone. E.1. For identifying errors in reasoning, since we are dealing with the truth of a previously not known proposition, it raises the question: How does the truth of one proposition relate with another? And here is the central observation for all logical work:  The truth of something is only its truth, and not of anything else. The truth of any proposition belongs only to itself implies that if something is true, all that defines it is also true and also its assumed consequent is true. Conversely, if it is false, at least one key component that defines it is false, or its assumed antecedent is false. For an example consider if it is defined that rain is composed of water, and nothing else, and if is it believed that presence of rain implies presence of clouds, and we are informed that in such and such region it is raining, we may deduce that by definition there are additional, visually visible, water drops

D.1.  Argument: A set of propositions whose truth leads to the truth of another previously not known proposition derived from this given set of propositions - the initial set of propositions is considered as premises, and derived one is called conclusion.  ( Derivation implies the logical operations using the components of initial set of propositions.) E.1. Since it is now the discovery of truth of something new within the initial set of propositions, two immediate conclusions follow: I. A conclusion, the newly discovered proposition, cannot be absurd i.e. to imply truth and falsehood at once, to contradict itself or the initial set of propositions. II. Accordingly, a conclusion which is suggestive of possible truths, and possible falsehoods, something like "Maybe, Maybe Not", is not desirable for it does not inform us of the truth of anything whereas in an argument we are interested in truth. Explanation: While suggestive results, the ones with tone of "possibility&quo

D.1. Logic: It is the study of the methods and principles used for distinguishing correct forms of reasoning from the incorrect ones.    Reference: Copi, I., Cohen, C., & Rodych, V. (__). Introduction to logic. Routledge.

What is Economics in A Broader Project of Social Science? (Based on Robbins, L. (2007). An essay on the nature and significance of economic science.) We may deduce the following from 1.2.1 to 1.2.4:  A) Buying and selling are now aspects of behaviour. B) Accordingly, the market is now an abstract idea, an aspect of any engagement. C) These markets are frequently established in almost all engagements of social nature. The instances of economic nature - the instances where multiple scarce-substitutable means and multiple immutable-conflicting ends shape behaviour - are not infrequent in rest of sciences. D) These markets - instances of economic nature - play a central role in almost all of the social sciences - the act of choosing from various means with  alternative uses shapes almost all spheres of life. E) Accordingly, the empirical findings of other sciences where aforesaid market exists fall within the scope of economics. F) Economics Analysis can provide the economic rationale of t

What  are the  Implications of the "Psychological Conflict"? (Based on Robbins, L. (2007). An essay on the nature and significance of economic science.) Robbins in his second chapter says that Economics is the scientific study of those aspects of behaviour which are triggered due to the psychological conflict arising from a system of given ends on one hand, and a set of given social and technical conditions on the other. Robbins in his first chapter says that an Economist is interested in Relative Valuations which are the different ratios of valuation between substitutable means resulting from the different degrees of their scarcity which in turn depends on variations of means and ends. Now this far we can deduce that these conflicts have something to do with valuations, they result in them. Thus, by pointing out psychological conflicts as the source of economic actions, it is implied that we are now to study a psychological conflict - the arousal of two or more strong motive

What is an Aspect of Behaviour? (Based on Robbins, L. (2007). An essay on the nature and significance of economic science.) By moving away from buying and selling as categories, to these as aspects of behaviour, Robbins has expanded the scope of economics to include such territories which have never been charted, and remain unexplored till to date. What is meant by buying as an aspect, and selling as an aspect? If you are giving your time to read/listen this further, and I am writing/speaking more, then is it that you are buying more ideas from me, by giving me your attention, and I am selling you my ideas, by taking your attention? How shall we treat buying and selling as aspects of our behaviours in this case? Is it selling when a potential mate attempts to attract attention of opposite sex, say as birds do by dancing or building nests. Is it selling when, of two friends, one tells a joke and receives in return a pun? The pun was unexpected reward, or perhaps a cost? Is it an aspect

What is a Substitute? (Based on  Robbins, L. (2007). An essay on the nature and significance of economic science.) Is an apple a substitute of an orange, or of a full meal? Or can an orange be substituted for water, or its peal for the colour of a drawing? How something becomes a substitute? Whereas economics takes the data about means and ends as given, it is not really indifferent about how apparently given means, which are initially not considered as substitutes, become substitutable. One may say that the discovery of something as a substitute of another is the result of lateral, and/or abstract thinking. And since these tasks are costlier, i.e. consume our scarce time, and attention which has alternative uses, it is now an economic issue. Given a set of means and ends, an agent may choose to engage in expending their cognitive resources, and time, in order to discover how the given set of means may be combined and used in the stead of an unavailable resource, or of a costlier one w

D.1. The Primacy of Non-Money: Unlike business studies, Economics is interested in more abstract ideas of valuations, and monetary denomination of prices are merely consequent of it.  E.1. By proposing that now buying and selling are but aspects of behaviour, and not its categories as ordinarily believed, it is implied that prices - the costs necessary to acquire a quantity of something - too are not necessarily monetary, cannot always be written in currency units. This unique aspect of definition of Economics, in fact, works only to broaden the scope of Economics, and as such requires further investigation. Thus, it follows from the treatment of buying and selling as aspects of behaviour, that we are not concerned with money only. And in this sense the monetary denomination of prices are only a consequent of the more subjective, non-monetary, valuations preceding them. And again, although in basic texts of Economic we introduce monetary prices, we do so only to simplify the learning,

D.1. The Functions of an Economist in a Society:  An economist fills the gap of Rationality in his or her society (From 1.6.1, and 1.5.6). E.1. Our society evolves through two contradictions. On the one hand, the means are not fully permissive of the simultaneous gratification of all the ends, and on the other hand, our ends are always contradictory. Faced with such conflicts, a society, if it is willing to progress, requires Rationality as described in 1.6.1. And it is the task of an Economic Analyst to equip his society with the needed Rationality. It is an economic analyst who studies the implications of scarce substitutable means for the multiple ends, identifies the contradictions therein, and informs the society of the costs, or the sacrifices necessitated by reason. In studying the implications of scarce means and multiple ends, it is natural that he or she discovers the most efficient long run path to achieve the conflicting ends. And due to 1.4.3, acting as trustee of the soc

D.1. Universality of Contradictions Among Ends:  There is always at least one instance of conflicting Ends at any given time. E.1. For one reason or another, from one angle of thought or from another, it can always be deduced that our ends are contradictory. Now it is of no concern for an economist, while he or she is analysing, to discuss why contradictions do exist. However, at this moment when we are defining economics, we may safely engage in some reasoning about them. And so we may appeal to our observations and find that contradictory goals are but an empirical regularity. We may consult hedonistic psychology and find that what we want for ourselves is opposite of what we want others to have in relation to us. We may depart from it. We may opt humanistic psychology and find that as a normal human we wish to find a balance between selfish and altruistic motives. Or more abstractly we may consult philosophy and find that duality of opposites is the only universality. Yet, we may s